The idea of men's receiving an intimation of their
connection with the world around them through an immediate feeling which is
from the outset directed to that purpose sounds so strange and fits in so badly
with the fabric of our psychology that one is justified in attempting to
discover a psycho-analytic—that is, a genetic—explanation of such a feeling.
The following line of thought suggests itself. Normally, there is nothing of
which we are more certain than the feeling of our own self, of our own ego.
This ego appears to us as something autonomous and unitary, marked off distinctly
from everything else.
There is only one state—admittedly an unusual state, but not
one that can be stigmatized as pathological—in which it does not do this. At
the height of being in love the boundary between ego and object threatens to
melt away.
Pathology has made us acquainted with a great number of
states in which the boundary lines between the ego and the external world
become uncertain or in which they are actually drawn incorrectly. There are
cases in which parts of a person's own body, even portions of his own mental
life—his perceptions, thoughts and feelings—, appear alien to him and as not
belonging to his ego; there are other cases in which he ascribes to the
external world things that clearly originate in his own ego and that ought to
be acknowledged by it. Thus even the feeling of our own ego is subject to disturbances
and the boundaries of the ego are not constant.
Further reflection tells us that the
adult’s ego–feeling cannot
have been the same from the beginning. It must have gone through a process of
development, which cannot, of course, be demonstrated but which admits of being
constructed with a fair degree of probability. An infant at the breast does not
as yet distinguish his ego from the external world as the source of the
sensations flowing in upon him.
The hermit turns his back on the world and will have no
truck with it. But one can do more than that; one can try to re-create the
world, to build up in its stead another world in which its most unbearable
features are eliminated and replaced by others that are in conformity with one’s
own wishes. But whoever, in desperate defiance, sets out upon this path to
happiness will as a rule attain nothing. Reality is too strong for him. He
becomes a madman, who for the most part finds no one to help in carrying
through his delusion. […] The religions of mankind must be classed among the
mass-delusions of this kind.
One of the ideal demands, as we have called them, of
civilized society […] runs: “Thou shall love thy neighbor as thyself.” It is
known throughout the world and is undoubtedly older than Christianity, which
puts it forward as its proudest claim. Yet it is certainly not very old; even
in historical times it was still strange to mankind.
How has it happened that so many people have come to take up
this strange attitude of hostility to civilization? I believe that the basis of
it was a deep and long-standing dissatisfaction with the then existing state of
civilization and that on that basis a condemnation of it was built up,
occasioned by certain specific historical events.[…] I am not learned enough to
trace the chain of them far back enough in the history of the human species;
but a factor of this kind hostile to civilization must already have been at
work in the victory of Christendom over the heathen religions. For it was very
closely related to the low estimation put upon earthly life by the Christian
doctrine.
We come upon a contention which is so astonishing that we
must dwell upon it. This contention holds that what we call our civilization is
largely responsible for our misery, and that we should be much happier if we
gave it up and returned to primitive conditions. I call this contention
astonishing because, in whatever way we may define the concept of civilization,
it is a certain fact that all the things with which we seek to protect
ourselves against the threats that emanate from the sources of suffering are
part of that very civilization.
When we justly find fault with the present state of our
civilization for so inadequately fulfilling our demands for plan of life that
shall make us happy, and for allowing the existence of so much suffering which
could probably be avoided—when, with unsparing criticism, we try to uncover the
roots of its imperfection, we are undoubtedly exercising a proper right and are
not showing ourselves enemies of civilization. We may expect gradually to carry
through such alterations in our civilization as will better satisfy our needs
and will escape our criticisms. But perhaps we may also familiarize ourselves
with the idea that there are difficulties attaching to the nature of
civilization which will not yield to any attempt at reform.
The present cultural state of America would give us a
good opportunity for studying the damage to civilization which is thus to be
feared. But I shall avoid the temptation of entering upon a critique of
American civilization.
There is also an added factor of disappointment. During the
last few generations mankind has made an extraordinary advance in the natural
sciences and in their technical application and has established his control
over nature in a way never before imagined. The single steps of this advance
are common knowledge and it is unnecessary to enumerate them. Men are proud of
those achievements, and have a right to be. But they seem to have observed that
this newly-won power over space and time, this subjugation of the forces of
nature, which is the fulfillment of a longing that goes back thousands of
years, has not increased the amount of pleasurable satisfaction which they may
expect from life and has not made them feel happier.
The liberty of the individual is no gift of civilization. It
was greatest before there was any civilization, though then, it is true, it had
for the most part no value, since the individual was scarcely in a position to
defend it.
If the development of civilization has such a far-reaching
similarity to the development of the individual and if it employs the same
methods, may we not be justified in reaching the diagnosis that, under the
influence of cultural urges, some civilizations, or some epochs of
civilization— possibly the whole of mankind—have become 'neurotic'?
Moreover, the diagnosis of communal neuroses is faced with a
special difficulty. In an individual neurosis we lake as our starting-point the
contrast that distinguishes the patient from his environment, which is assumed
to be “normal.” For a group all of whose members are affected by one and the
same disorder no such background could exist; it would have to be found
elsewhere. […] But in spite of all these difficulties, we may expect that one
day someone will venture to embark upon a pathology of cultural communities.
I should find it very understandable if someone were to
point out the obligatory nature of the course of human civilization and were to
say, for instance, that the tendencies to a restriction of sexual life or to
the institution of a humanitarian ideal at the expense of natural selection
were developmental trends which cannot be averted or turned aside and to which
it is best for us to yield as though they
were necessities of nature.
Men have gained control over the forces of nature to such an
extent that with their help they would have no difficulty in exterminating one
another to the last man. They know this, and hence comes a large part of their
current unrest, their unhappiness and their mood of anxiety. And now it is to
be expected that the other of the two “Heavenly Powers,” eternal Eros, will
make an effort to assert himself in the struggle with his equally immortal
adversary. But who can foresee with what success and with what result?
Sigmund Freud, Civilization
and its Discontents (1930)
